Noun Phrase

A noun phrase or nominal phrase (abbreviated NP) is a phrase which has a noun (or indefinite pronoun) as its head word, or which performs the same grammatical function as such a phrase. Noun phrases are very common cross-linguistically, and they may be the most frequently occurring phrase type.

Noun phrases often function as verb subjects and objects, as predicative expressions, and as the complements of prepositions or postpositions. Noun phrases can be embedded inside each other; for instance, the noun phrase some of his constituents contains the shorter noun phrase his constituents.

In some modern theories of grammar, noun phrases with determiners are analyzed as having the determiner rather than the noun as their head; they are then referred to as determiner phrases.

Some examples of noun phrases are underlined in the sentences below. The head noun appears in bold.

The election year politics are annoying for many people.

Almost every sentence contains at least one noun phrase.

Current economic weakness may be a result of high energy prices.

Noun phrases can be identified by the possibility of pronoun substitution, as is illustrated in the examples below.

a. This sentence contains two noun phrases.

b. It contains them.

a. The subject noun phrase that is present in this sentence is long.

b. It is long.

a. Noun phrases can be embedded in other noun phrases.

b. They can be embedded in them.

A string of words that can be replaced by a single pronoun without rendering the sentence grammatically unacceptable is a noun phrase. As to whether the string must contain at least two words, see the following section

Identifying noun phrases

Some examples of noun phrases are underlined in the sentences below. The head noun appears in bold.

The election year politics are annoying for many people.

Almost every sentence contains at least one noun phrase.

Current economic weakness may be a result of high energy prices.

Noun phrases can be identified by the possibility of pronoun substitution, as is illustrated in the examples below.

a. This sentence contains two noun phrases.

b. It contains them.

a. The subject noun phrase that is present in this sentence is long.

b. It is long.

a. Noun phrases can be embedded in other noun phrases.

b. They can be embedded in them.

A string of words that can be replaced by a single pronoun without rendering the sentence grammatically unacceptable is a noun phrase. As to whether the string must contain at least two words, see the following section

Countable Nouns

Countable nouns refer to things that we can count. Such nouns can take either singular or plural form.

Concrete nouns may be countable.

There are a dozen flowers in the vase.

He ate an apple for a snack.

Collective nouns are countable.

She attended three classes today.

London is home to several orchestras.

Some proper nouns are countable.

There are many Greeks living in New York.

The Vanderbilts would throw lavish parties at their Newport summer mansion.

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns refer to things that we cannot count. Such nouns take only singular form.

Abstract nouns are uncountable.

The price of freedom is constant vigilance.

Her writing shows maturity and intelligence.

Some concrete nouns are uncountable (when understood in their undivided sense).

The price of oil has stabilized recently.

May I borrow some rice?

Phrases consist minimally of a Head. This means that in a one-word phrase like [children], the Head is children. In longer phrases, a string of elements may appear before the Head:

[the small children]

For now, we will refer to this string simply as the pre-Head string.

A string of elements may also appear after the Head, and we will call this the post-Head string:

the small children in class

Conditional sentences

Conditional sentences

Conditional sentences are sentences expressing factual implications, or hypothetical situations and their consequences. They are so called because the validity of the main clause of the sentence is conditional on the existence of certain circumstances, which may be expressed in a dependent clause or may be understood from the context.

A full conditional sentence (one which expresses the condition as well as its consequences) therefore contains two clauses: the dependent clause expressing the condition, called the protasis; and the main clause expressing the consequence, called the apodosis.[1] An example of such a sentence (in English) is the following:

        If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled.

Here the condition is expressed by the clause if it rains, this being the protasis, while the consequence is expressed by the picnic will be cancelled, this being the apodosis. (The protasis may either precede or follow the apodosis; it is equally possible to say "The picnic will be cancelled if it rains".) In terms of logic, the protasis corresponds to the antecedent, and the apodosis to the consequent.

Languages use a variety of grammatical forms and constructions in conditional sentences. The forms of verbs used in the protasis and apodosis are often subject to particular rules as regards their tense and mood. Many languages have a specialized type of verb form called the conditional mood – broadly equivalent in meaning to the English "would (do something)" – for use in some types of conditional sentence

Grammar of conditional sentences

In English conditional sentences, the condition clause (protasis) is most commonly introduced by the conjunction if, or sometimes other conjunctions or expressions such as unless, provided (that), providing (that) and as long as. Certain condition clauses can also be formulated using inversion without any conjunction (should you fail...; were he to die...; had they helped us...).

In English language teaching, conditional sentences are often classified under the headings zero conditional, first conditional (or conditional I), second conditional (or conditional II), third conditional (or conditional III) and mixed conditional, according to the grammatical pattern followed.[3]

"Zero conditional" refers to conditional sentences that express a simple implication (see above section), particularly when both clauses are in the present tense: "If you don't eat for a long time, you become hungry." This form of the conditional expresses the idea that a universally known fact is being described: "If you touch a flame, you burn yourself." The act of burning oneself only happens on the condition of the first clause being completed. However such sentences can be formulated with a variety of tenses (and moods), as appropriate to the situation.

More examples of the zero conditional

                If you exercise a lot, you get fit

 If you don't eat or drink, you die

 If you eat lots of junk food, you will get fat

"First conditional" refers to predictive conditional sentences (see above section); here, normally, the condition is expressed using the present tense and the consequence using the future: "If you make a mistake, someone will let you know."

"Second conditional" refers to the pattern where the condition clause is in the past tense, and the consequence in conditional mood (using would or, in the first person and rarely, should). This is used for hypothetical, counterfactual situations in a present or future time frame (where the condition expressed is known to be false or is presented as unlikely).

        If I liked parties, I would attend more of them.

        If it rained tomorrow, I would dance in the street.

The past tense used in the condition clause is historically the past subjunctive; however in modern English this is identical to the past indicative except in the case of the verb be (first and third person singular), where the indicative is was and the subjunctive were. In this case either form may be used (was is more colloquial, and were more formal, although the phrase if I were you is common in colloquial language too):

        If I (he, she, it) was/were rich, there would be plenty of money available for this project.

"Third conditional" is the pattern where the condition clause is in the past perfect, and the consequence is expressed using the conditional perfect. This is used to refer to hypothetical, counterfactual (or believed likely to be counterfactual) situations in the past

        If you had called me, I would have come.

"Mixed conditional" usually refers to a mixture of the second and third conditionals (the counterfactual patterns). Here either the condition or the consequence, but not both, has a past time reference:

        If you had done your job properly, we wouldn't be in this mess now.

        If we were soldiers, we wouldn't have done it like that.

A range of variations on the above structures are possible. For details, see the article on English conditional sentences

Conditional Sentence Type 1

It is possible and also very likely that the condition will be fulfilled.

Form: if + Simple Present, will-Future

Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.

more on Conditional Sentences Type I

Conditional Sentence Type 2

It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will be fulfilled.

Form: if + Simple Past, Conditional I (= would + Infinitive)

Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.

more on Conditional Sentences Type II

Conditional Sentence Type 3

It is impossible that the condition will be fulfilled because it refers to the past.

Form: if + Past Perfect, Conditional II (= would + have + Past Participle)

Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation

http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/conditional-sentences
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conditional_sentence